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Edison, Thomas (Alva) 1847 -- 1931

Inventor. Born February 11, 1847 in Milan, Ohio. His father was a jack-of-all-trades, his mother a former teacher. Edison spent three months in school, then was taught at home by his mother. At the age of 12 he sold fruit, candy, and papers on the Grand Trunk Railroad. In 1862, using his small handpress in a baggage car, he wrote and printed the Grand Trunk Herald, which was circulated to 400 railroad employees. That year he became a telegraph operator, taught by the father of a child whose life Edison had saved. Exempt from military service because of deafness, he was a tramp telegrapher until he joined Western Union Telegraph Company in Boston in 1868.

Probably Edison's first invention was an automatic telegraph repeater (circa 1864). His first patent was for an electric vote recorder. In 1869, as a partner in a New York electrical firm, he perfected the stock ticker and sold it. This money, in addition to that from his share of the partnership, provided funds for his own factory in Newark, N.J. Edison hired technicians to collaborate on inventions; he wanted an "invention factory." As many as 80 "earnest men," including chemists, physicists, and mathematicians, were on his staff. "Invention to order" became very profitable.

From 1870 to 1875, Edison invented many telegraphic improvements: transmitters; receivers; the duplex, quadruplex, and sextuplex systems; and automatic printers and tape. He worked with Christopher Sholes, "father of the typewriter," in 1871 to improve the typing machine. Edison claimed he made 12 typewriters at Newark about 1870. The Remington Company bought his interests.

In 1876 Edison's carbon telegraph transmitter for Western Union marked a real advance toward making the Bell telephone practical. (Later, Emile Berliner's transmitter was granted patent priority by the courts.) With the money Edison received from Western Union for his transmitter, he established a factory in Menlo Park, N.J. Again he pooled scientific talent, and within six years he had more than 300 patents. The electric pen (1877) produced stencils to make copies. (The A. B. Dick Company licensed Edison's patent and manufactured the mimeograph machine.)

Edison's most original and lucrative invention, the phonograph, was patented in 1877. From a manually operated instrument making impressions on metal foil and replaying sounds, it became a motor-driven machine playing cylindrical wax records by 1887. By 1890 he had more than 80 patents on it. The Victor Company developed from his patents. (Alexander Graham Bell impressed sound tracks on cylindrical shellac records; Berliner invented disk records. Edison's later dictating machine, the Ediphone, used disks.)

To research incandescence, Edison and others ncluding J. P. Morgan rganized the Edison Electric Light Company in 1878. (Later it became the General Electric Company.) Edison made the first practical incandescent lamp in 1879, and it was patented the following year. After months of testing metal filaments, Edison and his staff examined 6,000 organic fibers from around the world and decided that Japanese bamboo was best. Mass production soon made the lamps, although low-priced, profitable.

Prior to Edison's central power station, each user of electricity needed a dynamo (generator), which was inconvenient and expensive. Edison opened the first commercial electric station in London in 1882; in September the Pearl Street Station in New York City marked the beginning of America's electrical age. Within 4 months the station was lighting more than 5,000 lamps for 230 customers, and the demand for lamps exceeded supply. By 1890 it supplied current to 20,000 lamps, mainly in office buildings, and to motors, fans, printing presses, and heating appliances. Many towns and cities installed central stations. Increased use of electricity led to Edison-base sockets, junction boxes, safety fuses, underground conduits, meters, and the three-wire system. Jumbo dynamos, with drum-wound armatures, could maintain 110 volts with 90 percent efficiency. The three-wire system, first installed in Sunbury, Pennsylvania, in 1883, superseded the parallel circuit, used 110 volts, and necessitated high-resistance lamp filaments (metal alloys were later used).

新GRE写作名人素材库：爱因斯坦

Einstein Albert 1879—1955

Physicist. Born March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Germany. Einstein grew up in Munich, where his father, Hermann, owned a small electrochemical factory. The strict discipline of German schools did not appeal to the young Einstein, who was a poor student but conducted his own studies of philosophy, math, and science. In 1895, after Hermann抯 busines failed, the Einstein family moved to Milan, Italy. Albert stayed behind to continue his studies, but soon left school with no diploma to rejoin his family. He continued his independent studies, teaching himself calculus and higher scientific principles. After failing his first entrance examination to the prestigious Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, Einstein gained admittance in 1896 and began his four years studying physics and mathematics.

After his graduation in 1900, Einstein became a naturalized Swiss citizen in 1901 and got a job as a technical assistant at the Swiss patent office in Bern. In 1903, he married his university sweetheart, Mileva Maric. While employed at the patent office, Einstein continued his own investigations in theoretical physics. In 1905, he published an article entitled New Determination of Molecular Dimensions?in the well-known German physics monthly Annalen der Physik. The article earned him a Ph.D. from the University of Zurich. That same year, Einstein published four other papers in Annalen, including his revolutionary theory that light exists in both waves and particles. His major proposal of 1905, however, was his special theory of relativity, which dismissed the traditional notion that time and space were absolute concepts, suggesting instead that both time and space vary with circumstances.

Einstein worked as a professor of physics at universities in Prague and Zurich before moving to Berlin in 1914 with his wife and two sons, Hans Albert and Eduard. He took a post at the Prussian Academy of Sciences, where he could continue his research and lecture at the University of Berlin. Unhappy with life in Berlin, his wife Mileva returned to Switzerland with their sons near the beginning of World World I; their separation led to a divorce in 1919. Einstein married his second cousin, Elsa Lowenthal, later that year.

In 1915, Einstein perfected his general theory of relativity, summing up his theory with the mathematical equation E=mc?(energy equals mass times the speed of light squared). His findings on relativity were published in The Principle of Relativity, Sidelights on Relativity, and The Meaning of Relativity. In November 1919, the Royal Society of London announced that their experiment conducted during the solar eclipse of that year had confirmed the predictions Einstein made in his general theory of relativity. The implications of this announcement shook the world of science and earned Einstein the international acclaim he had long deserved.

Controversy continued to surround his scientific theories, as well as his political convictions, which became more pronounced as his fame increased. In the years following WWI, he received a great deal of criticism within Germany for his theories, as well as his active support of pacifism (including the League of Nations), liberalism, and Zionism. He traveled a great deal to deliver lectures on relativity, touring Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and South America. Einstein first toured the United States in the spring of 1921, in order to raise money for the Palestine Foundation Fund.

In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics. He was cited by the prize committee or your photoelectric law and your work in the field of theoretical physics.? There was no mention of his still-controversial work with relativity, which would become his most enduring legacy. From the 1920s on, Einstein worked to unify concepts of gravity and electromagnetism into a rand unified theory of physics,?or a single mathematical formula to relate the universal properties of matter and energy quest that would remain unfulfilled.

Meanwhile, Einstein legendary pacifism only strengthened during the years before World War II. He was exceedingly distressed by the failure of the 1932 World Disarmament Conference in Geneva, and later began a famous correspondence with Sigmund Freud about man inherent love of war. In 1933, just after Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany, Einstein renounced German citizenship and emigrated to America, where he was offered a full-time position at the newly-founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.

Early on, Einstein recognized the serious threat to world security posed by Hitler and Nazism. Despite his history of pacifism, he publicly urged European nations to ready themselves for defense. Realizing the implications of a possible Axis victory, he urged President Franklin D. Roosevelt to step up nuclear fission research in the U.S. Though he played no direct part in the development of the atomic bomb and was publicly horrified by its use in Japan in 1945 and its implications for the future of war, his name and research were inextricably linked to the dawning of the age of atomic power.

After Elsa death in 1936, Einstein lived alone in Princeton, throwing himself even more completely into political activism. He joined other scientists in a push to prevent future use of atomic weapons, proposing the establishment of a system of world government that would provide he binding authority necessary for world security.? He also denounced McCarthyism and called for an end to bigotry and racism, and was widely criticized for his liberal views among the anxious age of the Cold War. He died on April 18, 1955, at the age of 76.

新GRE写作名人素材库：巴斯德

Pasteur, Louis 1822 -- 1895

Chemist and biologist, famous for his germ theory and for the development of vaccines. Born December 27, 1822 in the small town of Dole, the son of a tanner. He studied in the college of Arbois and at Besancon, where he graduated in arts in 1840. As a student preparing for the prestigious Ecole Normale Superieure of Paris, he did not doubt his ability. When he gained admittance by passing fourteenth on the list, he refused entry; taking the examination again, he won third place and accepted. For his doctorate his attention was directed to the then obscure science of crystallography. This was to have a decisive influence on his career.

Under special dispensation from the minister of education, Pasteur received a leave of absence from his duties as professor of physics at the lyc of Tournon to pursue research on the optical properties of crystals of the salts of tartrates and paratartrates, which had the capacity to rotate the plane of polarized light. He prepared 19 different salts, examined these under a microscope, and determined that they possessed hemihedral facets. However, the crystal faces were oriented differently; they were left-handed or right-handed, thus having the asymmetrical relationship of mirror images. Furthermore, each geometric crystal variety rotated the light in accordance with its structure, while equal mixtures of the left- and right-handed crystals had no optical activity inasmuch as the physical effects canceled each other. Thus he demonstrated the phenomenon of optical isomers.

Pasteur was elated. He repeated his experiment under the exacting eyes of Jacques Biot, the French Academy's authority on polarized light who had brought Eilhardt Mitscherlich's work to Pasteur's attention. The confirmation was complete to the last exacting detail, and Pasteur, then 26, became famous. The French government made him a member of the Legion of Honor, and Britain's Royal Society presented him with the Copley Medal.

In 1852 Pasteur accepted the chair of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg. Here he found an opportunity to pursue another dimension of crystallography. It had long been known that molds grew readily in solutions of calcium paratartrate. It occurred to him to inquire whether organisms would show a preference for one isomer or another. He soon discovered that his microorganism could completely remove only one of the crystal forms from the solution, the levorotary, or left-handed, molecule.

In 1854, though only 31 years old, Pasteur became professor of chemistry and dean of sciences at the new University of Lille. The course of his activities is displayed in the publications which he gave to the world in the next decades: Studies on Wine (1866), Studies on Vinegar (1868), Studies on the Diseases of Silkworms (1870), and Studies on Beer (1876).

Soon after his arrival at Lille, Pasteur was asked to devote some time to the problems of the local industries. A producer of vinegar from beet juice requested Pasteur's help in determining why the product sometimes spoiled. Pasteur collected samples of the fermenting juices and examined them microscopically. He noticed that the juices contained yeast. He also noted that the contaminant, amyl alcohol, was an optically active compound, and hence to Pasteur evidence that it was produced by a living organism ("living contagion").

Pasteur was quick to generalize his findings and thus to advance a biological interpretation of the processes of fermentation. In a series of dramatic but exquisitely planned experiments, he demonstrated that physical screening or thermal methods destroyed all microorganisms and that when no contamination by living contagion took place, the processes of fermentation or putrefaction did not take place either. "Pasteurization" was thus a technique that could not only preserve wine, beer, and milk but could also prevent or drastically reduce infection in the surgeon's operating room. Another by-product of Pasteur's work on fermentation was his elucidation of the fact that certain families of microbes require oxygen whereas others do not. This insight divided the scientific community, and it was only in 1897, two years after his death, that the dispute was resolved.

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