从GREIssue考试的官方陈述看issue写作素材的准备思路

“The Analytical Writing Measure tests your critical thinking and analytical writing skills. It assesses your ability to articulate and support complex ideas, construct and evaluate arguments, and sustain a focused and coherent discussion. It does not assess specific content knowledge.

The tasks in the Analytical Writing measure relate to a broad range of subjects — from the fine arts and humanities to the social and physical sciences — but no task requires knowledge of specific content. In fact, each task has been tested by actual GRE® test takers to ensure that it possesses several important characteristics, including the following:

● GRE test takers, regardless of their field of study or special interests, understood the task and could easily respond to it.

● The task elicited the kinds of complex thinking and persuasive writing that university faculty consider important for success in graduate school.

● The responses were varied in content and in the way the writers developed their ideas.”

上述的官方陈述中，我们可以看出以下几点：

1)不考察专业背景。ETS明确指出：“It does not assess specific content knowledge.”“No task requires knowledge of specific content.”既然如此，素材是否足够专业，对考分是没有影响的。也就是说，专业性强的素材不一定能够为考试加分。而普通素材也不一定让考试减分。所以，我个人觉得，我们要彻底摒弃issue素材准备过程中对知识背景的过分依赖。

2)着重考察辩证性思维(critical thinking)和分析性的写作能力(analytical writing skills)。ETS明确指出，GRE写作考试，其实更关注于：你的写作是否体现了辩证性思维，你的写作是否论证性强、具有说服力。因此，我们其实不应该花很多时间在素材上，大量的精力应该放在论证是否说服力强这一点上。

以ETS所给出的官方范文为例，ETS在官方网站和官方指南上都给出了题库第一题的从1分到6分的官方范文。其中那篇6分的官方范文，我们通过剖析不难发现。全文所用的11个例证没有一个是学术性专业性很强的例子。相反，作者所举的例子都是很普通的、平时生活中非常常见的例子。以下段落摘自该文的第一段[注1]：

“The statement linking technology negatively with free thinking plays on recent human experience over the past century. Surely there has been no time in history where the lived lives of people have changed more dramatically. A quick reflection on a typical day reveals how technology has revolutionized the world. Most people commute to work in an automobile that runs on an internal combustion engine. During the workday, chances are high that the employee will interact with a computer that processes information on silicon bridges that are .09 microns wide. Upon leaving home, family members will be reached through wireless networks that utilize satellites orbiting the earth. Each of these common occurrences could have been inconceivable at the turn of the 19th century.”

这其实是一个很值得推敲的issue开头。整个段落中，作者所使用了三个例子(car, computer, mobile phone)，均属很平常很普通的素材。但是，语句的写作非常流畅，让读者阅读之后大脑中产生很强的画面感。由此可见，素材本身不分高低贵贱，用好生活中的很朴实的素材，也能够成就GRE写作高分。

此外，还需要关注的是，普通例子还有一个极其重要的好处，那就是说服力更强。还是拿这个段落举例，作者用“A quick reflection on a typical day reveals how technology has revolutionized the world.”这样一句话把这三个例子串了起来，体现出这些例子的典型性和普适性。一定程度上，这样平常、简单的例子来例证，非但没有让文章“逊色”，反而让这种论证变得具有极强的说服力。相反，如果你在此举的例子很特殊很专业，反而不具有说服力。为什么呢?我们学习argument考试的时候应该都学过一个逻辑错误叫“hasty generalization”(以小推大)。事实上，所有的举例论证，都会有这个问题。Argument中我们要指出这个逻辑漏洞，而在issue写作中，我们就要尽量避免这个逻辑漏洞。如何尽量弥补?就是依靠朴实无华的日常生活中的例子。而尽量避免学术性强，专业性强的例子。

为什么要提这一点呢?因为长期以来，GRE issue一直给学生甚至部分老师一种幻觉，那就是：既然是学术考试，就必须要把文章写得很学术。比如，凡是出现法律类的题目，就必须把法律的基本假定、法律的意义这些东西要阐述清楚。这种认识，在很长一段时间内，哪怕是在现在，依然普遍存在。不少GRE写作老师甚至某些GRE写作参考书，对学生的这种认识也起到了推波助澜的作用。普遍地，同学们会选择“难”、“深”的素材来作为写作素材，觉得在考试中所运用的素材越专业越艰深，就越能体现出自己深厚的学术功底。而实际情况并非如此。在我所接触的学生习作中，不乏有使用专业性很强、而写得并不理想的文章。以下为典型的一例：

(学生习作)11. People's behaviour is largely determined by forces not of their own making.

The statement indicates that people behave according to external forces instead of their own idea. However, as the great philosopher Karl Marx said, all the things are determined by inner world, since internal elements are decisive while external factors merely play a role of catalyst. Consider the process of decision making, which people's behaviour depends on. No matter how powerful external forces are, it is people themselves that decide whether they yield to the forces or insist on their own belief or follow their hearts when pressure from external forces and ideas in inner world are controversial. Accordingly, for this matter, I would like to stand the side Marx holds.

To start with, we should acknowledge that behaviour is depended on decision. As Cognitive Behaviour Theory proves, people's behaviour directly results from decision. Only after thinking and decision can people set out to do something. Based on this assumption, therefore, it is necessary for us to have a look on the process of decision making.

People's behaviour can be classified into two groups. One is instinctive behaviour which regareds people as a kind of animal, and the other is social behaviour. However, as people are a kind of social animal with brilliant mind, instinctive behaviour such as seeking for water, food and sacurity, in terms of people, is nevertheless controlled by brains. For instance, soldiers can suffer from thirsty and hunger during wars, students will stop eating when class starts for the sake of respecting teachers, although they may extremely hungry. Thus, despite instinctive behaviour may determined by forces on other kinds of animal, people behaves after their decisions.

Social behaviour, the other group, is more clear to see dependence on decision. Large number of theories study decision making and factors influencing decision. Communication and psychological theorists developed consistency theory, which offers us a powerful testimony on people's own decision when facing conflict choice. All consistency theories begin with the same premise: people are more comfortable with consistency than inconsistency. Therefore, people tend to initially seek mental balance facing conflicts. Even though external pressure does not obviously force one, who is the unique one holds different idea with others, to change idea, but for seeking mentally balance, the individual tends to follow the majority. In this way, decision changes, on one's own making.

Similarly, in terms of economics theory, game theory provides a method of studying decision making, which also strengths people's own tendency to maximum the benefit and minimum the loss .Take laws, a definitely type of forces out of people's mind, for example. Laws forbid people in a variety of aspects. No matter what individuals thinks, laws regulate people's behaviour. And during one's decision making on whether he is going to drive or not after drinking beer, for example, he is bound to weigh benefits and loss. Laws doubtless play a role of affecting his decision.

上文给读者的最大印象是“难懂”。而且作为写作老师，我完全想象得出来，作者写这篇文章的过程也同样是极其痛苦的。作者非常希望自己能够写出一篇很深刻的文章，可是对于一个对英语写作的驾驭能力不是特别高的同学来说，写这样的文章就会出现被“憋”住的情况。即：想表达但不会表达、或者想表达但不知如何表达的情况。本文中，这种例子不计其数。全文从第一段开始，就引用了社会行为学和社会心理学的理论来进行阐述，但是，所有读者在读文章的过程中，几乎要每读一句话就要停顿一下，想一想作者到底要表达什么。比如，第四段第一句话：Social behaviour, the other group, is more clear to see dependence on decision. 这种句子，就是典型的读者大致能够知道作者想表达什么，但就是不会表达的情况。更为典型的就是第四段的倒数第二句：Even though external pressure does not obviously force one, who is the unique one holds different idea with others, to change idea, but for seeking mentally balance, the individual tends to follow the majority. 此句话层次非常不清楚，让读者读后完全不知所云。事实上，这种写作常常会让文章陷入“死局”——作者很痛苦，同时读者也很痛苦。作者想表达但不会表达，读者想弄清楚作者的意思但反复读还是弄不清楚。出现这种情况的主要原因，其实就是文中所使用的写作素材理论性过强，导致过于抽象。我们知道，无论是哪门语言，表达抽象概念的难度要远远大于表达具体事例的难度。这几乎成为了所有人全都认同的常识。因此，如果没有能力来驾驭这样的文章，想办法把文章写得更加“简单”才是明智之举。而且，既然ETS已经明确指出，是否了解专业背景对于文章分数的高低没有任何影响，这就说明把文章写得艰深是完全没有必要的。既然如此，那就索性不要选择理论性专业性强的素材。

很多同学在骨子里害怕GRE issue考试，例子是其中的一个致命问题。而事实上，我们根本不用担心，因为所有的话题，我们其实都有办法用日常生活中的例子就完全能够应付。比如，涉及类似法律领域的题目，就没有生活的例子了吗?当然不是!交通法规、食品安全、网络安全、保护环境、盗版、甚至义务教育法，都是阿!哪一个不可以举例?!为什么一定要举辛普森案件、十四修正案呢?艺术没有生活的例子了吗?文学、影视中的好例子比比皆是，为何一定要举莫扎特、贝多芬呢?如果把这些例子准备好，那是非常棒的。既好写、又具有说服力，何乐而不为呢?

当然，必须要指出的，本文的观点是基于ETS官方陈述的解读和中国学生写作的实际情况入手进行分析的。并不代表所有同学都一定要沿着这条思路走。专业性强的例子不是不可以，而是具有劣势。但这并不表明每一个学生都写不好专业性强的例子。所以，同学们要根据自己的实际情况进行选择。如果某个领域的专业性素材你非常熟悉而且写起来得心应手，当然是可以的。

GRE作文资料：政治

66 学习的生理学

Thought, in a general sense, is commonly conceived as something arising from the stimulation of neurons in the brain. Current understanding of neurons and the central nervous system implies that the process of learning corresponds to changes in the relationship between certain neurons in the brain. Research is ongoing in this area.

It is generally recognized that memory is more easily retained when multiple parts of the brain are stimulated, such as through combinations of hearing, seeing, smelling, motor skills, touch sense, and logical thinking.

Repeating thoughts and actions is an essential part of learning. Thinking about a specific memory will make it easy to recall. This is the reason why reviews are such an integral part of education. On first performing a task, it is difficult as there is no path from axon to dendrite. After several repetitions a pathway begins to form and the task becomes easier. When the task becomes so easy that you can perform it at any time, the pathway is fully formed. The speed at which a pathway is formed depends on the individual, but is usually localized resulting in talents.

第六大类政治类

2 哲学与政治

Philosophers have forever been concerned with political and social matters. Not only have they asked how politics work but mainly, how they should work. These philosophers have been concerned with the nature and justification of political obligation and authority and the goals of political action. Although their doctrines have differentiated, and numerous have been utopian in concept, they have all shared the same ideas and convictions that it is the political philosopher?s duty to distinguish between what is and what ought to be, between existing political institutions and potentially more humane institutions. Throughout the centuries, philosophers have debated over the moral issues involved in the search for the ideal society. Three influential philosophers in this field have been Plato, John Locke and Karl Marx. Their philosophies and utopian states have continually influenced political actions and thoughts throughout the ages.

19 掌权者的文化

The idea of unmarked categories originated in feminism. The theory analyzes the culture of the powerful. The powerful comprise those people in society with easy access to resources, those who can exercise power without considering their actions. For the powerful, their culture seems obvious; for the powerless, on the other hand, it remains out of reach, élite and expensive.

The unmarked category can form the identifying mark of the powerful. The unmarked category becomes the standard against which to measure everything else. For most Western readers, it is posited that if a protagonist?s race is not indicated, it will be assumed by the reader that the protagonist is Caucasian; if a sexual identity is not indicated, it will be assumed by the reader that the protagonist is heterosexual; if the gender of a body is not indicated, it will be assumed by the reader that it is male; if a disability is not indicated, it will be assumed by the reader that the protagonist is able bodied, just as a set of examples.

One can often overlook unmarked categories. Whiteness forms an unmarked category not commonly visible to the powerful, as they often fall within this category. The unmarked category becomes the norm, with the other categories relegated to deviant status. Social groups can apply this view of power to race, gender, and disability without modification: the able body is the neutral body; the man is the normal status.

GRE作文备考资料之创新

10 创新者的八大特点

A 2005/6 MIT survey of innovation in technology found a number of characteristics common to innovators working in that field.

1. They are not troubled by the idea of failure.

2. They realize that failure can be learned from and that the "failed" technology can later be reused for other purposes.

3. They know innovation requires that one works in advanced areas where failure is a real possibility.

4. Innovators are curious about what is happening in a myriad of disciplines, not only their own specialism.

5. Innovators are open to third-party experiments with their products.

6. They recognize that a useful innovation must be "robust", flexible and adaptable.

7. Innovators delight in spotting a need that we don?t even know we harbor, and then fulfilling that need with a new innovation, and as such.

8. Innovators like to make products that are immediately useful to their first users.

38 想象力的概念

Imagination is the ability to form mental images, or the ability to spontaneously generate images within one?s own mind. It helps provide meaning to experience and understanding to knowledge; it is a fundamental facility through which people make sense of the world, and it also plays a key role in the learning process. A basic training for imagination is the listening to storytelling (narrative), in which the exactness of the chosen words is the fundamental factor to "evoke worlds".

It is accepted as the innate ability and process to invent partial or complete personal realms within the mind from elements derived from sense perceptions of the shared world. The term is technically used in psychology for the process of reviving in the mind percepts of objects formerly given in sense perception. Since this use of the term conflicts with that of ordinary language, some psychologists have preferred to describe this process as "imaging" or "imagery" or to speak of it as "reproductive" as opposed to "productive" or "constructive" imagination. Imagined images are seen with the "mind?s eye".

One hypothesis for the evolution of human imagination is that it allowed conscious beings to solve problems (and hence increase an individual?s fitness) by use of mental simulation.

46 八大关键学习方法

Some key study skills include:

1. Removing distractions and improving concentration

2. Maintaining a balance between homework and other activities

3. Reducing stress, such as that caused by test anxiety

4. Strategies for writing essays

5. Speed reading

6. Note-taking

7. Subject-specific study strategies

8. Preparing for exams

从GRE Issue考试的官方陈述看issue写作素材的准备思路相关文章：